Important Female Artists of the Surrealist Movement

Significant Female Artists of the Surrealist Movement Established in 1924 by essayist and artist Andrã © Breton, the Surrealist bunch was involved specialists whom Breton had handpicked. In any case, the developments thoughts, which concentrated on uncovering the subliminal through activities like programmed drawing, were not contained to the chosen few whom Breton eccentrically preferred or avoided. Its impact was worldwide and discovered its most grounded stations in Mexico, the United States, Europe, and Northern Africa. Due to Surrealism’s notoriety as a male order, female specialists are regularly worked out of its story. However crafted by these five female specialists overturns the customary account about Surrealism’s center around externalizing the female body, and their support in the development is demonstration of the way that the Surrealist ethos was more far reaching than craftsmanship history has recently accepted. Leonor Fini Leonor Fini was conceived in Argentina in 1907, yet she spent her childhood in Trieste, Italy after her mom fled a miserable union with Fini’s father. As a grown-up, Fini turned out to be very much familiar with the Surrealist bunch in Paris, get to know figures, for example, Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning. Her work was shown in MoMA’s original 1937 â€Å"Fantastic Art, Dada, and Surrealism† appear. Fini was taken by the possibility of the androgyne, with which she recognized. Her way of life was with regards to her whimsical way to deal with sex, as she lived in a menagetrois with two men for more than forty years. She spent summers in an overview château on Corsica, where she gave expand ensemble parties, for which her visitors would get ready for months. <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/YBgFgqC-taFErgMeb79a6Nm6CkA=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-475770256-5c9158ddc9e77c00014a9e47.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/SaqPEUHz2KgRbNAuIJ0otR08dX0=/813x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-475770256-5c9158ddc9e77c00014a9e47.jpg 813w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/u9s2sTqdLS7Torbxn-nresazE6g=/1326x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-475770256-5c9158ddc9e77c00014a9e47.jpg 1326w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/rqhzeb-DE0PXrlWgl8xSG7OFFL4=/2354x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-475770256-5c9158ddc9e77c00014a9e47.jpg 2354w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/pXlnuUXdIyOtVPFq-iijahuU6fA=/3564x2354/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-475770256-5c9158ddc9e77c00014a9e47.jpg src=//:0 alt=Leonor Fini with one of her works of art class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-9 information following container=true /> Leonor Fini with one of her works of art. Francis Apesteguy/Getty Images Finis work frequently highlighted female heroes in places of predominance. She outlined suggestive fiction and structured ensembles for her friends’ plays. She would likewise structure her own outfits for get-togethers. Her frequently over-the-top mental self view was captured by a portion of the era’s most notable picture takers, including Carl van Vechten. Maybe Fini’s most prominent business achievement was in structuring the fragrance bottle for Elsa Schiaparellis â€Å"Shocking† aroma. The container was made to resemble the bare middle of a lady; the structure has been copied for quite a long time. Dorothea Tanning Dorothea Tanning was conceived in 1911 and experienced childhood in Galesburg, Illinois, the little girl of Swedish outsiders. Smothered by a severe adolescence, the youthful Tanning got away into writing, getting familiar with the universe of European expressions and letters through books. Certain that she was bound to turn into a craftsman, Tanning dropped out of the Art Institute of Chicago for living in New York. MoMA’s 1937 â€Å"Fantastic Art, Dada, and Surrealism† solidified her pledge to Surrealism. It was not until years after the fact that she turned out to be near a portion of its key characters, when many moved to New York to get away from the developing threatening vibe in Europe because of the Second World War. <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/yL33oFbUShsgEmB8u4zZR7GPezE=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-138210081-5c91579346e0fb000146ae0e.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/w82HPsZ6CsoSZihLo_g0B-4q8K4=/1099x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-138210081-5c91579346e0fb000146ae0e.jpg 1099w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/hzwRy0T3m1KoTDCdjnN4-I5lXz0=/1898x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-138210081-5c91579346e0fb000146ae0e.jpg 1898w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/YO4oHoCpK9q7nGxjTCrIclLwOiU=/3496x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-138210081-5c91579346e0fb000146ae0e.jpg 3496w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/dcrpMzgmPg8JZvuZooP0EAdSHWc=/3736x3496/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-138210081-5c91579346e0fb000146ae0e.jpg src=//:0 alt=Portrait of Dorothea Tanning class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-19 information following container=true /> Picture of Dorothea Tanning, 1955.  Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images When visiting Tanning’s studio in the interest of his significant other Peggy Guggenheim’s â€Å"Art of this Century† Gallery, Max Ernst met Tanning and was dazzled with her work. They turned out to be quick companions, and in the long run wedded in 1946, after Ernst had separated from Guggenheim. The couple moved to Sedona, Arizona and lived among an accomplice of individual Surrealists. Tanning’s yield was fluctuated, as her vocation traversed around eighty years. In spite of the fact that she is maybe most popular for her artistic creations, Tanning likewise went to ensemble configuration, model, exposition, and verse. She has an enormous collection of work comprising of rich humanoid models, which she was known to use in establishments all through the 1970s. She kicked the bucket in 2012 at age 101. Leonora Carrington Leonora Carrington was conceived in the United Kingdom in 1917. She quickly went to the Chelsea School of Art, at that point moved to Londons Ozenfant Academy of Fine Arts. She met Max Ernst in her mid twenties and before long moved with him toward the south of France. Ernst was captured by the French experts for being an unfriendly outsider and later by the Nazis for delivering degenerate workmanship. Carrington endured a mental meltdown and was hospitalized at a refuge in Spain. Her lone ways to get out was to wed, so she wedded a Mexican representative and left for the United States, where she was brought together with a large number of the Surrealists in a state of banishment in New York. She before long moved to Mexico, where she served to establish the Womens Liberation Movement and at last spent a mind-blowing remainder. Carringtons work fixates on images of supernatural quality and witchcraft, and frequently manages huge repeating pictures. Carrington additionally composed fiction, including The Hearing Trumpet (1976), for which she is most popular. <img information srcset=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/9Q3HBXis3Nt_V0CMYc3P5zhKPw8=/300x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-537566555-5c91587246e0fb000146ae0f.jpg 300w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/2j0obsQN5mQnC2KTbDTWEd4txiA=/1041x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-537566555-5c91587246e0fb000146ae0f.jpg 1041w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/ZSi9TKMv3M4rt-mYCAEW5arrCvo=/1782x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-537566555-5c91587246e0fb000146ae0f.jpg 1782w, https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/_nN-JLV_CcodtUHGJ87EChUWmJY=/3264x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-537566555-5c91587246e0fb000146ae0f.jpg 3264w information src=https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/Ut43luvXvsP7UM-aKH_LoKMnXJ4=/3264x2448/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/GettyImages-537566555-5c91587246e0fb000146ae0f.jpg src=//:0 alt=Sculpture by Leonora Carrington in Mexico City class=lazyload information click-tracked=true information img-lightbox=true information expand=300 id=mntl-sc-square image_1-0-31 information following container=true /> Figure by Leonora Carrington in Mexico City.  Meret Oppenheim Swiss craftsman Meret Oppenheim was conceived in Berlin in 1913. At the flare-up of the First World War, her family moved to Switzerland, where she started to consider craftsmanship before moving to Paris. It was in Paris that she got familiar with the Surrealist circle. She knew Andrã © Breton, was quickly impractically engaged with Max Ernst, and displayed for Man Ray’s photos. Oppenheim was most popular for her collection mold, which united divergent discovered items so as to come to a meaningful conclusion. She is generally celebrated for her Dã ©jeuner en Fourrure likewise called Objet, a teacup lined in hide, which was displayed at MoMA’s â€Å"Fantastic Art, Dada, and Surrealism† and was allegedly the main expansion to the assortment of the Museum of Modern Art by a lady. Objet turned into a symbol of the Surrealist development, and however it is liable for Oppenheim’s acclaim, its prosperity has regularly dominated her other broad work, which incorporates painting, model, and gems. Despite the fact that she was disabled by the early achievement of Objet, Oppenheim started to work again during the 1950s, following a very long while. Her work ËÅ"has been the subject of various reviews far and wide. Regularly tending to topics of female sexuality, Oppenheim’s work stays a significant touchstone for understanding Surrealism all in all. Dora Maar Dora Maar was a French Surrealist picture taker. She is maybe generally well known for her photo Pã ¨re Ubu, a closeup of an armadillo, which turned into a notable picture for Sur

Charles Hamilton Houston and Brown vs. Board essays

Charles Hamilton Houston and Brown versus Board expositions Charles Hamilton Houston and Brown versus Board 1945-1970, a period for some, that denoted the period known as the Civil Rights Movement. In actuality, the Civil Rights Movement traversed from the time the main African American contacted American soil as a slave. From that second on, African Americans start the battle for correspondence and equivalent assurance under the law, a battle for the rights that are explicitly conceded to each resident of the United States under the Constitution. The reason for the development was to freed the nation of isolation and Jim Crow Laws, to offer African Americans equivalent training as that of their Caucasian companions, and as expressed before-award African Americans the common freedoms that the progenitors of our nation allowed all Americans. The battle was difficult, nor was it short, nor is it over. At the point when one thinks about the Civil Rights Movement, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. normally rings a bell. He is the most remarkable, however he isn't the main man that made it his lifes crucial better the open doors introduced to African Americans. From The Montgomery Bus Boycott to the March on Washington, from demonstrations to peaceful fights, the way to balance was cleared with hard labor of probably the most gallant people, both high contrast, that have graced this world. There were numerous who went unnoticed, yet without their commitments a large number of the chronicled occasions and land stamped cases would have taken more time to come to fruition, on the off chance that they appeared by any means. Among the many neglected, is Charles Hamilton Houston. Houston made ready for the milestone case Brown versus Leading body of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Without his extraordinary lawful psyche and methodology equivalent training would have been quite a while really taking shape. Charles Hamilton Houston was conceived on September 3, 1895. That year that the different yet equivalent precept appeared after the decision in the Plessy versus Ferguson case w... <!

Your Quick Guide to Alter vs. Altar

Your Quick Guide to Alter vs. Altar Choosing between alter and altar is really quite simple once you realize that one is a verb (alter) and the other is a noun (altar). At that point, its just a matter of determining whether you need a noun or a verb in the context of a sentence. Lets look at the two definitions:Alter is a verb meaning to make different without changing into something else or to become different. The only time you will see it in another context would be as an adjective (for example, alter ego). In that sense, it will still retain the meaning of having changed but be used as an adjective instead.Altar, on the other hand, is a noun meaning a usually raised structure or place on which sacrifices are offered or incense is burned in worshipâ€"often used figuratively to describe a thing given great or undue precedence or value especially at the cost of something else [for example, sacrificed his family life on the altar of career advancement].As you can see, simply looking at the context of the word in the s entence will help clarify which word (altar vs. alter) should be used. Here are some examples of each word used in context correctly:AlterWhen you dye your hair, you will alter its texture.Dont alter that photo, we want to make sure its the original.AltarThe bride and groom said their vows at an altar decorated with flowers and candles.The ceremony will take place at the churchs altar.

Communicating with Fragile X Syndrome Children Essay

Did you know that about 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females are affected by Fragile X Syndrome(CDC)? Fragile X Syndrome affects does not only affect the young or the old but it will affect anyone of any age. Children who have Fragile X Syndrome can learn many different ways of communicating with others. Also there are many ways to help a Fragile X children become more socially active. There are many ways to help Fragile X Syndrome children to communicate. Fragile X Syndrome effects people of all ages from birth till death, in many different ways. Some people with the syndrome will show signs and symptoms but others may show none. Females often will not show signs or symptoms and the only way you can tell is through testing, but on†¦show more content†¦There are many different signs and symptoms that will show if a child has Fragile X Syndrome. Some of the physical signs that will often tell if someone has FXS: elongated face, large and protruding ears, flat feet, large t estes, low muscle tone, and cluttered/nervous speech. They will most likely have behavioral symptoms that will be fairly obvious. Some of the these symptoms are: stereotypical movements, atypical development (shyness, limited eye contact, memory problems, difficulty with face encoding) and some will meet diagnostic the criteria for autism. Children will Fragile X often have very short attention spans and are very sensitive which can cause them to react to large crowds by throwing tantrums. Behavioral issues differ between age groups, they will learn whats allowed in certain situations. These children learn at a pace of 2.2 times slower than the average, unaffected child(Wikipedia). Do to their mental age the can have troubles with distinguishing and highlighting certain features on peoples faces and on objects therefore it will decrease their mental ability to remember certain things and people. Children with Fragile X do not usually begin speaking until they are older or they cannot speak at all. While the children are still young the y may often get middleShow MoreRelatedThe Hallmark Feature of Asd3264 Words   |  14 Pagesyears old.  Some parents report the change as being sudden, and that their children start to reject people, act strangely, and lose language and social skills they had previously acquired. In other cases there is a plateau of progress so that the difference between the child with autism and other children the same age becomes more noticeable. It is important to note that not all signs of autism appear in all autistic children. The degrees in which they appear may vary as well. 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School Uniforms Unformity And Individuality - 855 Words

Uniforms Uniforms are expensive and are a violation of human rights, even though it’s professional and sober clothing, they don’t allow students to express who they are, people say it prevents bullying but bullying can happen without uniform. School uniform promotes conformity over individuality. They are difficult to enforce in public schools. It is more money to pay for uniforms and normal clothes outside of school. There really isn’t a uniform in real life like working if you work as a janitor at a school it doesn’t matter what you wear it matters that you get the job done. To begin with, the clearest point about anti-uniforms is that they don’t allow self-expression. We live in a world that is full of special aspects that make our†¦show more content†¦Uniform doesn’t allow self expression, which makes it harder to enforce in public schools. Uniforms are harder to enforce in public schools because it’s also too expensive to pay for. â€Å"Most public schools with uniform policies are in poor neighborhoods† This means that the people in these neighborhoods couldn’t afford to buy their kids the uniform and their school supplies at the beginning of the school year. They are used to wearing what they want to wear or what they find in their closets. â€Å"According to the Miami-Dade County Public Schools Office of Education Evaluation and Management, fights in middle schools nearly doubled within one year of introducing mandatory uniforms.† It leads to more trouble because they most likely don’t like to wear that kind of clothing. Some people may think that uniform is professional and sober clothing, it’s expensive to buy things that go by the dress code. Also, children are not able to express who they really are, and can still get bullied. People may also think that it shows that the school has the kids in line and they behave properly. While this may be true, it just locks the kids inside their bodies not letting them out. The school is showing people what they want them to see, not what the students want them to. Imagine you walk into a school and see that all the kids have their shirts tucked in and the are

The Action of Tiger Conservation Free Essays

The Action of Tiger Conservation As the population of tiger in the world dwindles nowadays, everyone has the responsibility for the conservation of tiger especially tiger range countries. Over the past 100 years, tiger numbers have declined by 95 percent which leave only 3,200 and three sub-species have become extinct – with a fourth not seen in the wild for over 25 years (World Wild Fund for Nature [WWF] International, 2008). Since it is estimated that wild tiger number halved to 3,200, we can stop this decline if we act together now. We will write a custom essay sample on The Action of Tiger Conservation or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the countries where tiger population is facing extinction, government, conservation groups, and corporation have stepped many efforts to recover the threat of extinction. Government plays a vital role in taking steps to conserve population of tiger because without them a tiger conservation policy cannot be implemented. All of the governments throughout the species’ ratige demonstrate greater resolve and lasting commitments to conserve tigers and their habitats, as well as to stop all trade in tiger products from wild and captive-bred sources (Dinerstein et al. , 2007). In Malaysia, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia which under Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Government of Malaysia has introduced the National Tiger Action Plan for Malaysia in the year 2008. The aim of the Plan is to double the population of Malayan tigers from 500 to about 1,000 in the nation’s Central Forest Spine by 2020. This Plan identifies four objectives towards achieving following goal: 1. Secure the Central Forest Spine with strictly protected priority areas in landscapes connected with corridors. 2. Provide effective and long-term protection of tigers and their prey. . Promote and practice ecologically sound land-use, compatible with tiger conservation outside the priority areas. 4. Apply science in monitoring the efficacy of conservation actions and improving the knowledge of tiger ecology. (Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia [DWNP], 2008). Furthermore, the vigilance of the Anti-Smuggling Unit officers and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks’ Wildlife Crime Unit prevented the smugglers from slipping their illicit haul through the Malaysia-Thailand border and into the illegal trade in tigers and their parts. Besides that, the law is being amended and other more stringent regulations are being finalized which allow for higher fines and longer jail sentences for poaching tigers. This is because as it stands, taking a tiger or any part of a tiger is an offense under the Protection of Wild Life Act 1972 which allows for a maximum fine of RM15,000 (USD4,000), a jail term of up to five years, or both. This is paltry compared to the fortune awaiting the smuggler when his illegal haul is finally sold (John ; Shepherd, 2009). According to the World Wild Fund for Nature (2008), India is home to the world’s largest population of tigers in the wild which is nearly to half of the world’s tigers or 1,400 of the 3,500 tigers. A major concerted conservation effort by the government known as Project Tiger. Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation movement initially spearheaded in India in 1972 by Indira Gandhi, the prime minister of the Republic of India from 1966 to 1977 to protect the Bengal Tigers. The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted tiger reserves representative of various biogeographical regions throughout India. Under the flagship Project Tiger program, the central government allocated a budget of USD17. 75 million to Indian tiger reserves during ninth five-year plan from 1997 to 2002 (Dinerstein et al. , 2007). The fundamental accomplishment has been the establishment of over 25 well-monitored tiger reserves in reclaimed land where human development is categorically forbidden. The program has been credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from roughly 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s. However, after that tiger conservation in India used to focus on an exhaustive, census-based attempt which known as tiger census to determine exact tiger numbers. A report was stated that the wild tiger population in India declined by 60% to approximately 1,411 by using tiger-census technique. It is noted in the report that the decrease of tiger population can be attributed directly to poaching. Now it has shifted to population sampling based on the mapping software known as Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In place of the tiger census, India’s Ministry of the Environment and Forests has launched a GIS-based program that monitors habitat. The new system uses a sample-based approach to estimate tiger populations and to evaluate whether tiger habitat is increasing, decreasing, or stable (Bobechko ; Stockton, 2004). Following the release of the report, the Indian government also pledged $153 million to further fund the Project Tiger initiative, set-up a Tiger Protection Force to combat oachers, and fund the relocation of up to 200,000 villagers to minimise human-tiger interaction. Additionally, eight new tiger reserves in India are being set up. Indian officials successfully started a project to reintroduce the tigers into the Sariska Tiger Reserve. The Ranthambore National Park is often cited as a major success by Indian officials against poaching. On the other han d, India was seeking the support of World Bank and multilateral leader in highlighting efforts to keep alive India’s national emblem, the near-extinct wild tiger (Lamont, 2010). In Thailand, government of Thailand hosts world’s first inter-ministerial meeting on wild tiger conservation. The 1st Asian Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation will be held at the resort of Hua Hin, Thailand from January 27-30, hosted by the Royal Government of Thailand and co-organized by the World Bank, Save the Tiger Fund and other partners of the Global Tiger Initiative. All 13 tiger range countries were represented in Hua Hin. They include Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam. It marks the first time that ministers from tiger range countries will come together to find ways to work together on tiger conservation. At the 1st Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation, governments from the 13 tiger range countries (TRCs) showed unprecedented unanimity around the ambitious goal of total protection of critical tiger habitats and doubling the global number of wild tigers by 2022, the next Year of the Tiger. Thailand, the conference host, announced new commitments to improve and expand wildlife patrolling efforts. It was the first ever meeting of high-level representatives of the TRCs to discuss wild tiger conservation and signaled powerful convergence of political will, solidarity, and recognition of the urgency of the crisis facing the iconic symbol of Asia’s biodiversity. The meeting in Thailand was the latest concerted effort by governments and wildlife conservation experts set in motion by the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) to date to consider local, national, and regional plans to address tiger conservation issues. Experts and practitioners of conservation in the TRCs continued discussions on best practices and adoption of policies embracing locally-targeted ‘tiger-friendly’ strategies in areas such as smart green infrastructure and landscape and park management, building on work from a conference on wildlife enforcement in Pattaya, Thailand last year, and the Kathmandu Global Tiger Workshop held in Nepal in October 2009 (Global Tiger Initiative, 2010). Thailand, the host government used the Hua Hin Ministerial meeting as a platform to announce new commitments, including expanding its Smart wildlife patrolling program in the Western Forest Complex. Thailand’s Western Forest Complex – a 6,900 square mile (18,000 square kilometers) network of parks and wildlife reserves can potentially support some 2,000 tigers, making it one of the world’s strongholds for these emblematic big cats, according to a new study by Thailand’s Department of National Park, Wildlife, and Plant Conservation and the New York-based Wildlife Conservation Society. The Western Forest Complex currently supports an estimated 720 tigers. These tiger densities were lower than those reported by Wildlife Conservation Society scientists from some protected areas in India with similar habitat, but better enforcement. For example, tiger densities of as many as 12 tigers per 100 square kilometers were measured in India’s Nagarahole, Bandipur and Kanha forests, as opposed to four tigers per 100 square kilometers in Thailand’s Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary. The Hua Hin Declaration was unanimously adopted by delegates at the ministerial meeting, reflecting minister-level agreement among the TRCs to redouble efforts on the ground to halt the decline of tigers and assist in recovery of habitats (Wildlife Conservation Society, 2008). Where national governments supported in part by conservation groups, make a consistent and substantial commitments to tiger conservation, tiger do recover. Thus, conservation groups such as Malaysian Conservation Alliance of Tigers (MYCAT), World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF), and play a big part in taking steps to conserve population of tiger. Malaysian Conservation Alliance of Tigers is a joint programme of four non-governmental organization – the Malaysian Nature Society, WWF-Malaysia, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, and Wildlife Conservation Society Malaysia Programme. MYCAT is established in 2003 because challenges to tiger conservation are multi-faceted and reaching solutions requires an integrated conservation approach. MYCAT was created to take a holistic approach to conservation by consolidating the resources and strength of the partners to produce a cohesive plan to save the tiger. MYCAT works in partnership with the Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia for integrated tiger conservation programme in Malaysia. MYCAT is the collaborative latform for the implementation of National Tiger Action Plan. MYCAT’s role is to increase communication and opportunities for collaboration among the partners whose tiger conservation priorities include habitat protection, human conflict resolution, law enforcement, monitoring of illegal trade, research, education, and public awareness. For example, MYCAT organized Race Against Time: Tiger Day at Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur on December 16, 2007. This nationwide awareness campaign is to reduce the incidence of people consuming tigers and tigers’ prey in all forms. Many people getting their hands dirty making plaster casts of tiger footprints, learning about the cruelty of snares, playing wildlife games and much more. Thousands took their first step in saving wild tigers by signing the petition for improved legislation. Furthermore, MYCAT had set up the 24-hour Tiger Crime Hotline at 019 356 4194 to encourage public reporting of possible crimes against and their prey. The need for a 24-hour hotline is clear: poachers and smugglers don’t just work between 9-5. The 24-hour Tiger Crime Hotline allows everyone to easily report suspected wildlife crimes or send report to report@malayantiger. net (Malaysian Nature Society, 2006). The World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF) is one of the largest international conservation groups. In this year, 2010, WWF has placed tigers at the top of their conservation priorities, fearing that the Chinese Year of the Tiger might hasten their extinction by spurring demand for the animal’s body parts (Lamont ; WWF Global, 2010). Attaching top priority to remaining wild tiger populations around the world, WWF will witness the organization redoubling its efforts to preserve habitat and to give remaining species of wild tigers an earnest boost in their struggle to remain viable. WWF has launched the â€Å"Tx2: Double or Nothing† tiger conservation campaign. WWF’s Tx2 campaign aims to  put in place the necessary conditions to  double the wild tiger population by the next Year of the Tiger in 2022. The Tx2 campaign is all about setting the right conditions to enable our tiger population to double naturally in the wild. Monitoring of tiger populations, increasing patrol teams to reduce poaching threats and protecting tiger habitats are some of the ways to achieve this. Throughout 2010, WWF is focusing efforts on  securing emergency funds to halt poaching in the most critical tiger landscapes, securing political will and action to double wild tiger numbers, and protecting tiger habitat at an unprecedented scale, including clamping down hard on the illegal tiger trade. In addition, WWF outlined the current top 10 trouble spots for tigers in a first time interactive map that provides a unique overview of threats faced by wild tigers (WWF Global, 2010). Other than that, WWF-India strengthens patrolling capacity of Panna Tiger Reserve with vehicles. With the aim of strengthening tiger protection, WWF-India has supported Madhya Pradesh’s Panna Tiger Reserve with a four-wheeler and four motorcycles. The formal handover ceremony happened on Jan 26, 2010, the 60th anniversary of India becoming a republic. The vehicles are expected to strengthen the monitoring capacity of the staff of the tiger reserve and thereby deter poachers. They will help observe the tigers which were recently translocated here. In addition, they will be used to oversee the process of repopulation of Panna through future translocations (WWF-India, 2010). TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, is an international conservation group dedicated to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals are not threat to the conservation of nature. TRAFFIC is a joint programme of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN). TRAFFIC also works in close co-operation with the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). TRAFFIC has done many works to conserve tigers. TRAFFIC monitors wildlife markets in Asia and elsewhere by identifying any tiger parts being traded (there are many fake â€Å"tiger parts† in circulation) and informing the appropriate authorities of required action to curb such trade. TRAFFIC also works with enforcement authorities and governments to take action to protect Tigers. For example, TRAFFIC India recently provided metal detectors and training to help park guards detect the use of illegal metal snares in Tiger reserves. TRAFFIC is also developing a database to monitor all seizures and trade in tiger parts. It is being modeled on ETIS, a database that has proved successful for monitoring illegal ivory trade and ensuring effective action is taken to curtail it. TRAFFIC also helps to raise awareness about the conservation plight of wild Tigers. Besides that, TRAFFIC are also committed to assisting the Global Tiger Forum (GTF) and tiger range states with any technical assistance necessary to help the GTF fulfill its full potential as a significant global force for tiger conservation (TRAFFIC, 2008). On the other hand, the continuous decline in wild tiger populations worldwide which adversely impact both the biodiversity system and national heritage have also led to corporation heightening tiger conservation efforts globally. Thus, corporation also can play a role in taking steps to conserve the population of tiger. In Malaysia, the country’s leading financial services group, Maybank which bears the face of the Malayan tiger as its iconic emblem, is taking action by entering into a two-year partnership with the Malaysian Conservation Alliance for Tigers (MYCAT) in an effort to bring the plight of the Malayan tiger to the forefront. Maybank will be contributing RM1 million towards a dedicated outreach and research programme being spearheaded by MYCAT. While Maybank has been involved in supporting tigers in Malaysia’s zoos, the rapidly declining tiger populations worldwide and appalling rate of poaching of tigers in our country have led us to take firmer action this time around towards the conservation of wild tigers as part of our golden jubilee corporate responsibility activities. As a result, Maybank decided to provide funds that will be used mainly by scientists to conduct research that aims to gather data that will help us conserve the fast-declining Malayan tiger from extinction. The Maybank MYCAT alliance will also focus on raising public awareness among our rural and urban communities, and providing enforcement support to the authorities by assisting in collecting accurate, real-time information on wildlife crimes (Low, 2010). As a corporation, Maybank view this as an ideal opportunity to encourage our employees and the communities we operate in to learn more about the importance of biodiversity balance and the role conservation efforts can play in protecting our Malayan tiger, a national heritage. This partnership also serves to remind people that nature is not just a commodity to be extracted or taken for granted, and if we are to progress, it must be with sustainability in mind. The project funded by Maybank will go towards supporting MYCAT in implementing the National Tiger Action Plan 2008-2020 – specifically research that aims to enhance the sustainability of the population of tigers and their preys by securing a safe dispersal tiger corridor at Sungai Yu, the last forest linkage between the Main Range and Taman Negara in Pahang along the Gua Musang-Kuala Lipis trunk road. Agricultural expansion along the road has created a forest bottleneck and there is only about a 10km stretch of forest left connecting these environmentally sensitive areas. The research will determine the response of wildlife to the past development and current landuse patterns and establish benchmark data for future management. It will also estimate the tiger density in western Taman Negara and compare it to that of ten years go. Maybank’s support will allow the public and policy makers to be informed of practical solutions based on careful research. Maybank employees will also have the opportunity to participate in the outreach programme as volunteers. Among the year-long activities planned with MYCAT are roadshows mainly at night markets and conservation education programmes in schools to create awareness among key communities in the country (Maybank, 2010). Nokia India, the leading mobile communications company in partnership with WWF-India, one of the largest conservation organizations in the country to save the tiger. Globally, Nokia’s environmental strategy is to drive the use of safe substances and materials in products, improve the energy efficiency of products and create effective take-back and recycling programs. Energy efficiency and climate strategy are other important areas of continuous performance improvement by Nokia. Nokia has been involved in several conservation initiatives with the WWF Global Network. Nokia is extending this global vision to focus on local environment through its partnership with WWF by extend the relationship with WWF-India through Nokia in India. This is an important step in bringing corporate institutional support for conservation, significantly tiger conservation in India. This is also an important beginning at this critical time for conservation in our India. In July 27, 2008, Nokia India unveiled the ‘Tiger Wall of Hope’ in New Delhi as part of their support initiative for the Tiger Conservation programme of WWF India. The ‘Tiger Wall of Hope’ that has been created out of original pugmarks embedded in Plaster of Paris encased in acrylic are a grim reminder of the critical numbers of tigers left in the wild. As part of the association, Nokia and WWF-India will work towards providing education to the villagers for sustainable development, increasing awareness on tiger conservation, and identifying alternative livelihood programmes for the villagers around National Parks, specifically the Ranthambore National Park. Furthermore, Nokia will work with WWF in the following areas around Ranthambore to strengthen the existing community institutions and development of further institutions of the community to facilitate community empowerment, to provide education for sustainable development and ommunication outreach to the school teachers and students, villagers-including men and women, civil society communities around the Park and the forest personnel, and to strengthen sustainable and alternative livelihood programmes, to link them with existing schemes of other line departments of the Government of Rajasthan. In addition, Nokia has a robust community involvement program in Sriperumbudur, Chenna i around its manufacturing facility that has contributed immensely in improving the socio-economic fabric of the region and its employees. It is a matter of great privilege for Nokia India to be associated with WWF for the cause of tiger conservation that needs immediate intervention. This endeavor for tiger conservation is an extension of our commitment towards creating a positive impact on the society beyond Nokia’s technology, products, and services. (WWF-India, 2008) While the tiger as a wild species will most likely not go extinct within the next half century, its current trajectory is catastrophic. If this trend continues, the current range will shrink even further, and wild populations will disappear from many more places, or dwindle to the point of ecological extinction, in which their numbers are too few to play their role as top predator in the ecosystem. Leaving room for wide-ranging mammals such as tigers is vital and must become part of an effort to incorporate wildlife conservation into national and regional development agendas. Over the decades, we have realized that this problem is transnational and that science, economics, culture, public policy, and international dialogue all bear on preserving the tiger and its habitat. Conserving tigers, tiger habitat, and the natural capital they encompass must be part of the calculus that will continue to fuel Asia’s growing prosperity (Dinerstein et al. , 2007). According to George Schaller, â€Å"Future generations would be truly saddened that this century had so little foresight, so little compassion, such lack of generosity of spirit for the future that it would eliminate one of the most beautiful and dramatic animals that the world has ever seen. † (DWNP, 2008) How to cite The Action of Tiger Conservation, Papers

Recycling and Dear Fellow Friends.standing Essay Example

Recycling and Dear Fellow Friends.standing Essay Recycling Good morning to our beloved teachers, Puan Rusni and my dear fellow friends. Standing here today,I would like to deliver a speech entitled,Recycling. According to the Asian Development Bank,rapid development,rising personal consumption and unprecedented levels of waste in Asia where cities will generate on estimated 1. 8 million tonnes of rubbish per day by 2025. In Malaysia alone,we produce over 15,000 tonnes pf rubbish daily and it is a matter of time before we run out of space to dispose them. In dealing with this phenomenon,we shall discuss some of the suggestions that all of us can adapt through the process of recycling to conserve the environment. One of the ways to recycle is to sell old newspapers to the junkman who will eventually send them to the recycling centres. By selling the old newspapers,we can earn some extra money at the price of RM0. 03 per kilogramme of old newspapers. Buying recycled paper is also another option. On the average,about 17 market sized trees are felled to produce a tonne of paper or one tree is felled to produce 20 reams of A4 size paper. We will write a custom essay sample on Recycling and Dear Fellow Friends.standing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Recycling and Dear Fellow Friends.standing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Recycling and Dear Fellow Friends.standing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Today,we recognise the limits of resource demand and this is the reason why recycled paper is critical part of our aspiration for a healthy global environment. We should also use both sides of a sheet of paper because it cultivates the habit of not being wasterful while saving our earth from further deterioration. In addition,glass bottles should be recycled. The energy saved by recycling a glass container can light a 100-watt bulb for up to four hours. Avoiding the use of plastic products is another recommended way to protect our Mother Nature because plastic is non-biodegradable,it may survive as long as 700 years. Apart from that,it is indispensably necessary for us to save water and electricity as much as possible. We have to save electricity because we are running fast out of fossil fuels. The fossil fuels saved by turning off the water taps while brushing our teeth. By doing this we can save the energy used to filter purify and transport the water to the end users. On the other hand,electricity can be saved by switching off the light,television,radio and fan before leaving any rooms. This is because the primary environmental impact of electricity consumption is the production of greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming. Hence,saving electricity is the key preserve our Mother Nature, Another advice that everyone ought to take head of is not to throw away leftover rice but instead,make fried rice,tamarind rice,pepper rice and yoghurt rice. This is because many poor nations of the Third World countries are suffering from famine and malnutrition due to accute shortage of food such as Mozumbigue and Sudun and Myannar. Lastly but not least,we can also use water for washing clothes to wash our parentscars and other non-drinking purpose such as watering plants,washing toilets and mapping floors. As a conclusion,our planet is in a bad shape but most people choose to be indifferent to the effects initiated by the goverment to safeguard to dire condition of the environment. Majority of Malaysians choose to ignore the gathering storm clouds and hope the problem will magically take care of itslef. In Klang Valley,for instance,it produces more than 5000 tonnes of rubbish everyday which can cover the whole of Petronas Twin Towers,one of the tallest buildings in the world,in ten days and this is the reason why we must reduce,reuse and recycle. Whether the planet lives or dies,it depends on us and so,everyone plays a significant role by starting to recycle even from homes because a small change in behaviour has a measurable impact on our Earth. Thank you for lending me your ears. I hope all of you are benefited from my speech today.

Surfing Practice Expository Essay Essays

Surfing Practice Expository Essay Essays Surfing Practice Expository Essay Essay Surfing Practice Expository Essay Essay Essay Topic: Expository Practice Essay – Academic Writing Many people say surfing isn’t a sport, it’s a lifestyle – but, it’s more than that. From the moment you first step in the ocean to the day you die it is a part of you. It becomes the way you think and what plays across your mind when you are in that subconscious state between awake and asleep. It has an affair with your emotions and embeds itself in the depths of your heart. You cannot get rid of the ocean once it’s made its mark on you. It is unlike any other addiction on the planet. They say too much of anything can kill you, but, when it comes to surfing – you can never get enough. Surfing began in the islands of Hawaii, the first ever report written by Lieutenant James King of Captain James Cook’s ship Discovery. In this report he described the art of surfing over two pages in the narrative portion of Captain Cook’s journals. Surfing was an extremely spiritual and important part of Hawaiian life, so much so, that places were named after particular surfing incedents. When the Calvinistic Christian Missionaries arrived in Hawaii the number of surfers in the water declined rapidly as the missionaries claimed the sport, amongst others, was â€Å"Against the laws of God†. For years it was rare to see a surfer in the water, the surfing culture had almost died out. However, in 1907 Jack London a famous author took a vacation in Hawaii – staying in Waikiki – and was introduced to surfing by Alexander Hume Ford and George Freeth. Being an author, it was no surprise when Jack wrote of his surfing experience in his book entitled A Royal Sport: Surfing in Waikiki. This new publicity breathed life into the dying sport – and not long after – George Freeth was asked to put on a wave riding demonstration in California, bringing surfing to America. Now days, surfing is a huge sport. There are approximately 23 million surfers worldwide, a stark contrast to the late 1800’s in Hawaii. Surf companies are popping up all over the place – their main aim to provide surf equipment and apparel to the surf community and those who fancy the style. Surfing has grown, not only as a leisure sport, but also in competition. Currently, there are 34 men and 17 women competing on the WCT (World Championship Tour), and millions more taking to the water in small town events and larger professional or amateur competitions. Surfing is also making its way into the film industry, with surf photography and documentaries becoming increasingly popular. With all the hype and inflation of surfing, it will still remain a magical and adrenaline pumping experience. There are many surfers who surf for the pure joy of being out in the ocean, at one with rising and falling swells, no matter how far it is extracted from its humble, spiritual beginnings in Hawaii. These surfers are known as soul surfers – and it is these people that will continue to keep surfing alive for generations to come.

Interesting Bull Shark Facts (Carcharhinus leucas)

Interesting Bull Shark Facts (Carcharhinus leucas) The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas)  is an aggressive shark found throughout the world in warm, shallow waters along coasts, in estuaries, in lakes, and in rivers. Although bull sharks have been found inland as far as the Mississippi River in Illinois, they arent a true freshwater species. The bull shark is listed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Essential Facts Bull sharks get their common name both from their appearance and their behavior. The shark is large and stocky, with a broad, flat snout and an unpredictable, aggressive nature. Females are larger than males. A typical female bull shark is 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long and weighs 130 kg (290 lb), while a male averages 2.25 m (7.4 ft) and 95 kg (209 lb). The largest recorded bull shark was a 4.0 m (13.1 ft) female. The bite force of a bull shark is 5914 Newtons, which is the highest for any fish, weight for weight.There are 43 elasmobranch species found in freshwater. Sand sharks, sawfish, skates, and stingrays are other species that can enter rivers. Bull sharks are capable of osmoregulation, which means they can control their internal osmotic pressure when external salinity changes. This also makes them euryhaline (able to adapt to different salinities) and diadromous (readily able to swim between fresh and salt water). Bulls sharks give birth to four to ten live young in fresh water. Over ti me, the sharks gain a tolerance for salinity. Newborn or young sharks are usually found in fresh water, while older sharks tend to live in salt water. Young bull sharks flow with the tides to conserve energy needed for movement and osmoregulation. However, bull sharks can live their entire lives in fresh water. Adult life in fresh water is not ideal, as most of the sharks food lives in the sea. Bull sharks mainly eat bony fish and smaller sharks, including bull sharks. As opportunistic predators, they also eat terrestrial mammals, birds, turtles, crustaceans, echinoderms, and dolphins. They use the bump-and-bite strategy to attack prey, typically hunting in murky water. Usually, bull sharks are solitary hunters, although they may hunt in pairs to trick prey. Although bull sharks hunt in murky water, they can see color and use it to seek prey. They can be attracted to bright yellow gear, for example. The sharks hunt both during the day and at night.Adult sharks mate in late summer or early autumn. It takes 10 years for a shark to reach maturity. In the mating ritual, the male bites the females tail until she turns upside down, allowing him to copulate. Mature females often have bite marks and scratches.Bull sharks are apex predators, so their main threat is mankind. However, they may be attacked by great white sharks, tiger sharks, and crocodiles. The average life span of a bull shark is 16 years. How Dangerous Is the Bull Shark? The bull shark is believed to be responsible for most shark attacks in shallow water, even though  the International Shark Attack File  (ISAF) cites the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) as  responsible for the largest number of bites to humans. The ISAF notes great white bites are often correctly identified, but its difficult to tell bull sharks apart from other members of the family  Carcharhinidae  (the requiem sharks, which include the blacktip, whitetip, and grey reef shark). In any case, the great white, bull shark, and tiger shark are the big three where shark bites are concerned. All three are found in areas frequented by humans, have teeth designed to shear, and are large and aggressive enough to pose a threat. How to Recognize a Bull Shark If you see a shark in fresh water, chances are good its a bull shark. While the genus Glyphis includes three species of river sharks, they are rare and have only been documented in parts of Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Guinea. Bull sharks are gray on top and white underneath. They have a small, bullish snout. This helps camouflage them so they are harder to see viewed from below and blend in with the riverbed or sea floor when viewed from above. The first dorsal fin is larger than the second one and is angled rearward. The caudal fin is lower and longer than that of other sharks. Tips for Telling Sharks Apart If youre swimming in the surf, its not a smart idea to get close enough to identify a shark, but if you see one from a boat or land, you may want to know what type it is: Sandbar sharks also have rounded snouts, but their dorsal fins are larger and more triangular than those of bull sharks.Blacktip sharks are shaped much like bull sharks, but they have pointed snouts and white anal fins. Note juvenile bull sharks may have black-tipped fins, so coloration is not a good way to distinguish these species.Lemon sharks have blunt snouts, but they are yellow-green to olive-gray in color and both their dorsal fins are about the same size. Lemon shark dorsal fins angle back like those of a bull shark.Spinner sharks have pointed shouts, black tipping on their anal fins, and a band of Z-shaped lines on their sides.Tiger sharks have a dark stripe on their sides.Great white sharks are very large (10-15 ft long), have black eyes, and pointed snouts. Their coloration is similar to the bull shark (gray on top, white underneath).

Fred Bailey An Innocent Abroad(1) Exam case study Essay

Fred Bailey An Innocent Abroad(1) Exam case study - Essay Example So before venturing out on any project, a global project manager must do a complete examination of communal, fiscal, governmental, traditional and technical factors so that he is better equipped to alleviate trials posed with global projects (Varner, 2011). Analysis A cautious scrutiny of this case discloses a unsophisticated lack of cross-cultural knowledge, Personality stereotyping, miscommunication and poor decision making ability (Cheerla, 2010). Fred does not reveal a high level of cultural awareness enough to identify some of the noticeable cultural challenges, which were steady in showing the greatest gaps. Fred, the project manager culture is evidently different from that of Japan. This is key to a company overall performance because it encompasses the four cultural dimensions, which are, emotion, time, power and thinking. Problems encountered by Fred during his meeting with subordinates denote communication problems (Deresky, 2000). Having laid down his plans for future dire ction of the company office, he did not receive the desired response from his Japanese colleagues. United States is vastly individual oriented (Briscoe et al, 2012). People are anticipated to make decisions, and those decisions are expected to be in the best interest of the individual and his or her close family. In contrast, Japan is a community oriented; community and/or group interests take preference over the privileges of individuals. This contributed to miscommunication problems between Fred and his new colleagues. First, during the staff first meeting, he asked people for their individual opinions on how to improve things, and second, when he asked Tashiro, â€Å"what he thought† about the significant task being assigned to him. In both situations, they were reluctant to answer and, when they did answer, they gave vague explanations. To achieve success, Fred would have invited the group as a whole to discuss ideas and come up with a unified group vision. Personality st ereotyping was contributed by Fred lack of cross-cultural knowledge (Nkomo et al, 2010). Establishment of heartfelt relations with coworkers is necessary for Japanese. Employees intermingle with each other informally outside of the office and these relationships are taken into description when making professional decisions. Fred had to maintain authority, yet create a relationship that would unite all staff. On his arrival, he relaxed for two days at home then headed straight to work where he clearly assumed authority. He did not take time to know about his colleagues outside the company environment. Thus, when he assigned the project to an individual and encouraged him that he was worthy of the task required, that was stereotyping from him. He approached the employees in an impersonal style and expected them to be engaged because the company anticipated it. Lack of cross-cultural knowledge was the basis for poor decisions Fred made (Stroh, 2005). Relying on his American culture, he immediately lays down his proposal to the prospective Japanese client and he expects him to respond immediately. Fred was actually was not aware of the importance of personal relationship in business dealings in Japan during his strategizing and staff meeting. In Japan, comfort during business meetings is essential for success. Lack of basic knowledge of Japanese business environment; lead Fred to make poor decisions even before he arrived in Japan. For instance, his

My Six Millennium Development Goals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

My Six Millennium Development Goals - Essay Example While the world most powerful countries boost of their economic achievement, some communities in developing nations lavish in extreme poverty. The stories about people living in extreme poverty are not only sickening but also heartbreaking. It is arguable that when a person lives in poverty, he or she is not able to acquire other necessities such as education, good healthcare among others. The World Bank and the UN have indicated that they have made incredible work in ameliorating the poverty scourge. If I were to assign a letter grade to this specific goal, I would give it an A. This is due to the fact that the United Nations shows efforts to eradicate poverty irrespective of the fierce financial crisis. The target for the extreme poverty MDG is to reduce the current prevalence by half. The UN report shows that many communities leaving under extreme poverty lacked essential needs such as water, food, and shelter. The aforementioned needs are critical to human existence. The progress ive report indicates that the project would meet its deadline. Liberty activists contend that extreme poverty is an indication of deprived rights. Most governments are part of UN accord, which advocates for human liberty. Hunger hampers social and economic development because it influences the ability of an individual to contribute towards nation building. This MDG is critical to the future of the world because the liberty that the society claims to enjoy is evident through social interactions.... The aforementioned needs are critical to human existence. The progressive report indicates that the project would meet its deadline. Liberty activists contend that extreme poverty is an indication of deprived rights. Most governments are part of UN accord, which advocates for human liberty. Target 1 B/ Fight against Hunger Hunger hampers social and economic development because it influences the ability of an individual to contribute towards nation building. This MDG is critical to the future of the world because the liberty that the society claims to enjoy is evident through social interactions. Social theorist believe that the fabric that holds the society depend on human satisfaction. Unfortunately, hunger influences a person’s contribution to social growth. Factors, which limit individual independence, may attract social delinquency in meeting these needs. For instance, a hungry society may not be able to think beyond a means that would enable it to receive food. This means criminal activities are options that the community can adapt to fight hunger. The grade I would assign United Nations in this goal is A- since fighting hunger with the present financial and climate instabilities is hard. The target of this goal is halve the prevalence rate by 2015. The United Nations and the World Bank have contributed in reducing the prevalence of hunger by initiating projects that will empower the affected communities. The UN and World Bank have collaborated with the respective governments in the affected regions such as Sub Saharan Africa, funding sustainable agricultural projects in order to empower the society. The aim of such project intends to

Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System

Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system This report considers recent research evidence related to inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, in relation to social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system. A definition of inclusive education relevant to early educational practice will be offered. A literature review will be undertaken, that will principally examine the size of the social class differences amongst young children, and will go on to consider a case study of inclusive practice that was implemented at one English primary school. Recommendations for future research are made. Introduction Since the publication of the Plowden Report in 1967, it has been apparent that social class has a profound effect on the educational achievement of primary school children. In the past two decades, there have been a number of specific legislative changes that have altered the shape of primary school education. With the Education Reform Act(1988), schools have been required to undertake standardised testing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science subjects. Furthermore, schools have been required to publish controversial ‘league tables’ of performance, alongside national averages, in their school prospectus publications. There have been several policies introduced to reduce the effects of deprivation on young children including Sure Start, and a planned widening of availability of nursery education all in the name of ‘inclusive education’ (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield, Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New Labour policy makers strive to â€Å"make all families like middle-class families, or at least the ideal-typical middle class family of much educational research† (p 7). However, there is surprisingly little empirical research evidence available on inclusive education, or equality of opportunity in early educational settings, with most studies focussing on secondary school children. This is also regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) have clearly shown that at the age of seven, prior attainment accounts for 26-43% of variance in national assessment results (p 389 – 407). Therefore, early teaching support of children with special educational needs, or affected by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense importance to prevent children who start school behind their peers from falling further behind as their school careers progress. This report will critically assess available empirical studies related to the education of children aged 7 years and below within the United Kingdom. Furthermore, it will examine theoretical and philosophical perspectives on early inclusive education, and make recommendations for further research. Method The search strategy employed for the literature review involved searching electronic bibliographical databases for relevant research and policy papers related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and social class issues with English school pupils aged 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most papers that were located and subsequently considered in this literature review were published in the 1990’s and2000’s. The electronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British Education Index and Psych Lit. Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an individual basis to assess their relevance to the literature review. Research papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from various library sources. However, it was felt that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey literature. Therefore, the Education Line database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was also searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government official statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way. Literature Review Although ‘inclusive education’ has been the buzz word of the education sector for many years, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. It broadly includes reference to a schools receptivity to accommodate the needs of all its pupils, and be â€Å"more responsive to pupil diversity†(Fiorina, Rouse, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) have argued that inclusion and achieving high standards are not necessarily mutually exclusive goals, with some schools achieving both (p 115). Stephen and Cope (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, drawing distinction between the individual model where the deprived pupil is seen as ‘the problem’ (p 274) to be moulded into the school system, towards a social model of inclusive education. The social model acknowledges that there may be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, but also consider the possible institutional and operational barriers that hinder children’s entry and integration into infant schools. In their study, children from middleclass homes were supported by parents when they started infant schoolboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and through more proactive involvement in school activities (p 273). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners working in three English LEA’s to assess what ‘inclusive education ‘development was possible in schools, and make sense of school responses to the inclusion agenda. Some teachers reported confusion over what ‘inclusive education’ was, since many official sources of information focussed on inclusion of children with special educational needs only(p 1). However, most teachers saw ‘inclusive education’ as provision for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a version of inclusive education that is compatible with New Labour’s ‘social inclusion’ agenda ensuring that all members of society participate in the opportunities and activities of mainstream society (Blanket, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was â€Å"a set of broad values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a commitment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised groups) in common education† (p 2). In synthesising research papers on social class related to early education, it is apparent that the term ‘social class’ has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to â€Å"identify and separate the effects of different combinations of disadvantaging factors, noting that whilst not additive there is evidence of cumulative disadvantage (i.e. experiencing one factor such as low social class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors)† (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has classified the different interpretations as including children from low income households, parental unemployment, paternal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate housing environment (p 10). She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, but only a few studies specifically examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as indicated by eligibility for free school meals, appears to have marked effect on educational achievement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that receipt of income support benefit by the household accounted for 66% of variance in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10). Sparks (1999) has stated that â€Å"non-school factors are a more important source of variation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students receive† (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools can counteract some of the effects of social deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of between 8% and 15%, and school effects are greater within the primary school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12). However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving nursery education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a positive impact on achievement in national assessment tests at the age of seven (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, poor families may not have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high. Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the private sector provision where necessary. Smaller studies have shown an association between social class and early pupil attainment. However, stronger evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated Key Stage One results for local education authorities in England, against measures of social class obtained from the 1991 Social Census. This study clearly showed that social class, as evidenced through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local Education Authority’s Key Stage One test scores, across all LEA’s sampled (p 95). Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with performance at Key Stage One (p 280). More recently, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children longitudinally at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools effectiveness at developing cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children. Detailed records were kept on every child’s background characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as father’s occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in absolute attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in reading rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for just over 7% of variance in reading test performance, while having father working in an semi or unskilled profession accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%. However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for just 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was based on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980’s, and prior to the onset of the National Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published using a British school population. With high statistical power afforded through the sample size, it is possible tube confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar design but that are carried out now that the National Curriculum is an established format of educational provision within primary schools. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the ‘outdated’ paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility. In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for Baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The baseline assessment is a structured series of questions designed to assess pupils’ English ability, in terms of oral, reading and writing ability. In addition, early mathematical understanding is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. Strand (1999) has studied the results of baseline testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are based at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London. The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based around a range of background factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are length of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment collected by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlations between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key Stage 1 achievement, in the region of 0.6 or above. Furthermore, the test battery are highly predictive of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for writing. The combination of the LARR objective measure of literacy, and the teacher checklist, together make the best overall indicator of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five whole points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20). In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational progress of1669 Wands worth school children who had completed baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the sense that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined according the level of deprivation in the local community. The same assessment materials were used for this study as in Strand (1999). The pattern of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by; as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479). Composite measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and percentage of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. â€Å"These compositional effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account† (Strand, 1997, p 479). This means that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, â€Å"It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their context: they may receive greater help from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an atmosphere more conducive to learning† (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order. They suggest, â€Å"The school constitutes, in microcosm, a multifaceted and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex system†¦in order to operate successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an understanding of the connections between such important system-concepts as rules, roles, power and community† (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age of 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was therefore broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely working class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school. In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the head-teacher in the power structure was evident in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary years. The researchers closely examined the responses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school. At the middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend patterns where children’s knowledge and understanding increased with years. However, for the working-class school, the pattern of responses were more complicated. Children were much less likely to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling ‘included’ in school, with a strong sense of membership that children often report at the middle class school (p263). Examination of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents. As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have suggested, â€Å"Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to take issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and better equipped to make their feelings known, it might be expected that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, maybe seen as less threatening† (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in children’s understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school. According to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increased cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the children’s responses may not be due to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional factors may have an important contribution to children’s understanding of the school, with parents, teachers and children’s interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil. A social representation perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful detailed case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildren’s educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (‘Broad mead’) in an urban area, primarily serving families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in writing ability during Key Stage assessments. The school had identified a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to meet national expectations. School staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the cause of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to improve writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, â€Å"the school’s response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the realisation that customary practice simply did not ‘work’ in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment† (p 3). The school had moved towards a more experimental approach in the curriculum, and included new teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as thinking skills techniques. However, the actual underlying purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from standard practice. Over the course of the project, the experience of implementing new approaches and of their impact on children’s learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children. The original aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own right amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had therefore decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects. When the research team interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was generally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was due to the fact that children entered school with very limited language skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that ‘catch up ‘once they started school was insufficient to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family communication about education at home. This lack of preparation for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the ‘northern lad’ who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education. In summary, â€Å"some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills† (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement new teaching strategies as they had ‘internalised’ the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment system, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them deficit (p 7). This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an alternative perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of current educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers’ deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities. Conclusion Recent Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain mere ‘rhetoric’ unless there is evidence based research to provide teachers with practical skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. Research studies have consistently shown that working class children are regarded as the ‘problem’ that must be adapted to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom. However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers recognise that some children enter infant school poorly prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. Implementation of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution. However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if ‘inclusive education’ is truly ‘inclusive’ throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers’ implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next step is to develop longitudinal, vigorous research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice. Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. Sparks (1999) has shown that factors, such as social class, are associated with educational attainment, amongst young children. However, it is less clear about what aspects of social class are causal, and not merely correlated (p 10), and there is a need to investigate the specific aspects of social class that maybe associated/causing educational difficulties for children. References Barnes J, Balky J, Broomfield K, Sana D, Frost M, Melhuish E and the National Evaluation of the Sure Start Research Team (2005)Disadvantaged but different: variation among deprived communities in relation to child and family well-being. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46.9, pp. 952 – 962. Blanket D (1999) Excellence for the many, not just the few. CBI Presidential Address 19 July 1999 (DFEE, London). Buchanan-Burrow E and Barratt M (1998) Individual Differences in Children’s Understanding of the School. Social Development 7.2, pp250-268. Elmer N and Hana J (1993) Studying social representations in children: just old wine in new bottles? In G Break well and D Canter (ends)Empirical Approaches to Social Representatives (Oxford University Press, Oxford). Fiorina L, Rouse M, Black-Hawkins K and Jull S (2004) What can national data sets tell us about inclusion and pupil achievement. British Journal of Special Education 31.3, pp. 115 -121. Gallannaugh F and Dyson A (2003) Schools understanding of inclusion: issues in inclusion and social class. (British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Edinburgh). Geertz S (2001) Cloning the Blair’s. Journal of Educational Policy 16.4, pp. 365-378. McCollum I (1993) Testing Seven Year Olds – performance and context. Population Advice Note, pp. 93-101 (London Research Centre, London) Reynolds D, Sammons P, Stoll P, Barber M and Hillman J (1996) School effectiveness and school improvement in the United Kingdom. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 7, pp. 133 – 158. Sammons P (1995) Gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in attainment and progress: a longitudinal analysis of student achievement over 9 years. British Educational Research Journal 21.4, pp. 465-485. Sammons P and Sees R (1998) Measuring pupil progress at key stage one: using baseline assessment to investigate value added. School Leadership and Management 18.3, pp. 389 – 407. Sparks J (1999) Schools, Education and Social Exclusion. (Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, LSE, London). Stephen C and Cope P (2003) An Inclusive Perspective on Transition to Primary School. European Educational Research Journal 2.2, pp. 262 -275. Strand S (1997) Pupil Progress during Key Stage 1: A Value Added Analysis of School Effects. British Educational Research Journal 23.4,pp 471 – 487. Strand S (1999) Baseline assessment results at age 4: associations with pupil background factors. Journal of Research in Reading 22.1, pp. 14-26. The Plowden Report (1967) Children and their Primary Schools. (HMSO: London) Thomas S (1995) Considering primary school effectiveness: an analysis of 1992 Key Stage 1 results. The Curriculum Journal 6, pp. 279 – 295. West A, Pennell H, West A and Travers T (1999) The financing of school based education. (Centre for Educational Research, London). Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system This report considers recent research evidence related to inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, in relation to social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system. A definition of inclusive education relevant to early educational practice will be offered. A literature review will be undertaken, that will principally examine the size of the social class differences amongst young children, and will go on to consider a case study of inclusive practice that was implemented at one English primary school. Recommendations for future research are made. Introduction Since the publication of the Plowden Report in 1967, it has been apparent that social class has a profound effect on the educational achievement of primary school children. In the past two decades, there have been a number of specific legislative changes that have altered the shape of primary school education. With the Education Reform Act(1988), schools have been required to undertake standardised testing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science subjects. Furthermore, schools have been required to publish controversial ‘league tables’ of performance, alongside national averages, in their school prospectus publications. There have been several policies introduced to reduce the effects of deprivation on young children including Sure Start, and a planned widening of availability of nursery education all in the name of ‘inclusive education’ (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield, Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New Labour policy makers strive to â€Å"make all families like middle-class families, or at least the ideal-typical middle class family of much educational research† (p 7). However, there is surprisingly little empirical research evidence available on inclusive education, or equality of opportunity in early educational settings, with most studies focussing on secondary school children. This is also regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) have clearly shown that at the age of seven, prior attainment accounts for 26-43% of variance in national assessment results (p 389 – 407). Therefore, early teaching support of children with special educational needs, or affected by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense importance to prevent children who start school behind their peers from falling further behind as their school careers progress. This report will critically assess available empirical studies related to the education of children aged 7 years and below within the United Kingdom. Furthermore, it will examine theoretical and philosophical perspectives on early inclusive education, and make recommendations for further research. Method The search strategy employed for the literature review involved searching electronic bibliographical databases for relevant research and policy papers related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and social class issues with English school pupils aged 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most papers that were located and subsequently considered in this literature review were published in the 1990’s and2000’s. The electronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British Education Index and Psych Lit. Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an individual basis to assess their relevance to the literature review. Research papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from various library sources. However, it was felt that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey literature. Therefore, the Education Line database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was also searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government official statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way. Literature Review Although ‘inclusive education’ has been the buzz word of the education sector for many years, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. It broadly includes reference to a schools receptivity to accommodate the needs of all its pupils, and be â€Å"more responsive to pupil diversity†(Fiorina, Rouse, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) have argued that inclusion and achieving high standards are not necessarily mutually exclusive goals, with some schools achieving both (p 115). Stephen and Cope (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, drawing distinction between the individual model where the deprived pupil is seen as ‘the problem’ (p 274) to be moulded into the school system, towards a social model of inclusive education. The social model acknowledges that there may be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, but also consider the possible institutional and operational barriers that hinder children’s entry and integration into infant schools. In their study, children from middleclass homes were supported by parents when they started infant schoolboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and through more proactive involvement in school activities (p 273). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners working in three English LEA’s to assess what ‘inclusive education ‘development was possible in schools, and make sense of school responses to the inclusion agenda. Some teachers reported confusion over what ‘inclusive education’ was, since many official sources of information focussed on inclusion of children with special educational needs only(p 1). However, most teachers saw ‘inclusive education’ as provision for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a version of inclusive education that is compatible with New Labour’s ‘social inclusion’ agenda ensuring that all members of society participate in the opportunities and activities of mainstream society (Blanket, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was â€Å"a set of broad values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a commitment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised groups) in common education† (p 2). In synthesising research papers on social class related to early education, it is apparent that the term ‘social class’ has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to â€Å"identify and separate the effects of different combinations of disadvantaging factors, noting that whilst not additive there is evidence of cumulative disadvantage (i.e. experiencing one factor such as low social class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors)† (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has classified the different interpretations as including children from low income households, parental unemployment, paternal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate housing environment (p 10). She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, but only a few studies specifically examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as indicated by eligibility for free school meals, appears to have marked effect on educational achievement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that receipt of income support benefit by the household accounted for 66% of variance in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10). Sparks (1999) has stated that â€Å"non-school factors are a more important source of variation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students receive† (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools can counteract some of the effects of social deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of between 8% and 15%, and school effects are greater within the primary school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12). However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving nursery education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a positive impact on achievement in national assessment tests at the age of seven (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, poor families may not have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high. Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the private sector provision where necessary. Smaller studies have shown an association between social class and early pupil attainment. However, stronger evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated Key Stage One results for local education authorities in England, against measures of social class obtained from the 1991 Social Census. This study clearly showed that social class, as evidenced through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local Education Authority’s Key Stage One test scores, across all LEA’s sampled (p 95). Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with performance at Key Stage One (p 280). More recently, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children longitudinally at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools effectiveness at developing cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children. Detailed records were kept on every child’s background characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as father’s occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in absolute attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in reading rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for just over 7% of variance in reading test performance, while having father working in an semi or unskilled profession accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%. However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for just 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was based on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980’s, and prior to the onset of the National Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published using a British school population. With high statistical power afforded through the sample size, it is possible tube confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar design but that are carried out now that the National Curriculum is an established format of educational provision within primary schools. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the ‘outdated’ paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility. In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for Baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The baseline assessment is a structured series of questions designed to assess pupils’ English ability, in terms of oral, reading and writing ability. In addition, early mathematical understanding is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. Strand (1999) has studied the results of baseline testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are based at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London. The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based around a range of background factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are length of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment collected by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlations between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key Stage 1 achievement, in the region of 0.6 or above. Furthermore, the test battery are highly predictive of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for writing. The combination of the LARR objective measure of literacy, and the teacher checklist, together make the best overall indicator of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five whole points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20). In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational progress of1669 Wands worth school children who had completed baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the sense that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined according the level of deprivation in the local community. The same assessment materials were used for this study as in Strand (1999). The pattern of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by; as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479). Composite measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and percentage of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. â€Å"These compositional effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account† (Strand, 1997, p 479). This means that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, â€Å"It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their context: they may receive greater help from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an atmosphere more conducive to learning† (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order. They suggest, â€Å"The school constitutes, in microcosm, a multifaceted and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex system†¦in order to operate successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an understanding of the connections between such important system-concepts as rules, roles, power and community† (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age of 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was therefore broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely working class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school. In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the head-teacher in the power structure was evident in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary years. The researchers closely examined the responses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school. At the middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend patterns where children’s knowledge and understanding increased with years. However, for the working-class school, the pattern of responses were more complicated. Children were much less likely to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling ‘included’ in school, with a strong sense of membership that children often report at the middle class school (p263). Examination of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents. As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have suggested, â€Å"Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to take issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and better equipped to make their feelings known, it might be expected that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, maybe seen as less threatening† (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in children’s understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school. According to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increased cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the children’s responses may not be due to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional factors may have an important contribution to children’s understanding of the school, with parents, teachers and children’s interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil. A social representation perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful detailed case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildren’s educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (‘Broad mead’) in an urban area, primarily serving families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in writing ability during Key Stage assessments. The school had identified a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to meet national expectations. School staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the cause of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to improve writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, â€Å"the school’s response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the realisation that customary practice simply did not ‘work’ in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment† (p 3). The school had moved towards a more experimental approach in the curriculum, and included new teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as thinking skills techniques. However, the actual underlying purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from standard practice. Over the course of the project, the experience of implementing new approaches and of their impact on children’s learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children. The original aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own right amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had therefore decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects. When the research team interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was generally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was due to the fact that children entered school with very limited language skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that ‘catch up ‘once they started school was insufficient to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family communication about education at home. This lack of preparation for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the ‘northern lad’ who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education. In summary, â€Å"some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills† (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement new teaching strategies as they had ‘internalised’ the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment system, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them deficit (p 7). This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an alternative perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of current educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers’ deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities. Conclusion Recent Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain mere ‘rhetoric’ unless there is evidence based research to provide teachers with practical skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. Research studies have consistently shown that working class children are regarded as the ‘problem’ that must be adapted to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom. However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers recognise that some children enter infant school poorly prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. Implementation of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution. However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if ‘inclusive education’ is truly ‘inclusive’ throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers’ implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next step is to develop longitudinal, vigorous research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice. Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. Sparks (1999) has shown that factors, such as social class, are associated with educational attainment, amongst young children. However, it is less clear about what aspects of social class are causal, and not merely correlated (p 10), and there is a need to investigate the specific aspects of social class that maybe associated/causing educational difficulties for children. 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